Heat transfer mixture

ABSTRACT

A heat transfer mixture is represented by the formula: 1=Vpg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf+Vac/Vnf+Vci/Vnf. Vnf is a volume of a nanofluid. Vpg is a volume of propylene glycol. Vw is a volume of water. Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder. Vsf is a volume of a surfactant. Vbs is a volume of a base additive. Vac is a volume of an acid additive. Vci is a volume of a corrosive inhibitor.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates, in general, to refrigerants, and moreparticularly, to nanofluids that include aluminum oxide nanoparticlesfor use in thermal systems.

BACKGROUND

For well over a century, micro-sized particles with high thermalconductivity have been used to increase the thermal characteristics ofworking fluids. However, micro-sized particles can be abrasive and canprecipitate out due to their higher density. More recently, nano-sizedparticles were introduced into a base liquid to constitute a nanofluid.In particular, copper, aluminum, or carbon based nanoparticles were usedto create colloidal suspension fluids with enhanced thermalcharacteristics.

Conventional nanofluids have shown varying degrees of improvement inthermal performance with the addition of the nanoparticles to thethermal fluid. Many conventional nanofluids use copper (II) oxide (CuO)nanoparticles to form the nanofluid due to the favorable thermalproperties of copper (II) oxide powders. However, nanofluids formed withcopper (II) oxide suffer from several drawbacks that can impede theircommercial use in a thermal system. For example, fluids containingcopper (II) oxide nanoparticles have a tendency to mix with and retainair and oxygen within the fluid, which adversely affects the thermalproperties of the fluid and can create problems in the thermal system.Additionally, the copper (II) oxide nanoparticles tend to agglomerateand/or stick to the container of the fluid in the thermal system, whichcan lead to impairment and fouling of the flow of fluid in the system.Furthermore, the blackish color of the nanofluids available on themarket is less desirable than the lighter colored fluid of the presentapplication.

As such, a need currently exists for a commercially viable nanofluidthat has effective thermal properties, is relatively stable during use,and can be easily mass produced. This disclosure describes animprovement over these prior art technologies.

SUMMARY

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture is represented by the formula:1=Vpg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf+Vac/Vnf+Vci/Vnf. Vnf is avolume of a nanofluid. Vpg is a volume of propylene glycol. Vw is avolume of water. Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder. Vsf is a volume of asurfactant. Vbs is a volume of a base additive. Vac is a volume of anacid additive. Vci is a volume of a corrosive inhibitor.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of propyleneglycol, water, a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃, a surfactant, a baseadditive, an acid additive and a corrosive inhibitor. The nanopowder hasa particle size between about 100 nanometers and about 600 nanometers.The heat transfer mixture comprises between about 1% by volume and about20% by volume of the nanopowder. The heat transfer mixture comprisesbetween about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of the surfactant.The heat transfer mixture has a pH is between about 8.5 to about 12.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of betweenabout 30% by volume and up to about 70% by volume of propylene glycol,between about 30% by volume and about 70% by volume of water, betweenabout 1.0% by volume and about 20% by volume of a nanopowder comprisingAl₂O₃, between about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of asurfactant, between about 1.0% by volume and about 10% by volume of abase additive, between about 1.0% by volume and about 10% by volume ofan acid additive and between about 0.001% by volume and about 1.0% byvolume of a corrosive inhibitor. The nanopowder has a particle sizebetween about 100 nanometers and about 600 nanometers. The heat transfermixture has a pH of about 10.0.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture is represented by the formula:1=Vpg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf. Vnf is a volume of ananofluid. Vpg is a volume of propylene glycol. Vw is a volume of water.Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder. Vsf is a volume of a surfactant. Vbs isa volume of a base additive.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of propyleneglycol, water, a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃, a surfactant, and a baseadditive. The nanopowder has a particle size between about 100nanometers and about 600 nanometers. The heat transfer mixture comprisesbetween about 1% by volume and about 20% by volume of the nanopowder.The heat transfer mixture comprises between about 1% by volume and about3% by volume of the surfactant. The heat transfer mixture has a pHgreater than 8.5.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of betweenabout 25% by volume and about 50% by volume of propylene glycol, betweenabout 30% by volume and about 70% by volume of water, between about 1.0%by volume and about 20% by volume of a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃,between about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of a surfactant andbetween about 1.0% by volume and about 10% by volume of a base additive.The nanopowder has a particle size between about 100 nanometers andabout 600 nanometers. The heat transfer mixture has a pH of about 10.0.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture is represented by the formula:1=Veg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf+Vac/Vnf+Vci/Vnf. Vnf is avolume of a nanofluid. Veg is a volume of ethylene glycol. Vw is avolume of water. Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder. Vsf is a volume of asurfactant. Vbs is a volume of a base additive. Vac is a volume of anacid additive. Vci is a volume of a corrosive inhibitor.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of ethyleneglycol, water, a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃, a surfactant, a baseadditive, an acid additive and a corrosive inhibitor. The nanopowder hasa particle size between about 100 nanometers and about 600 nanometers.The heat transfer mixture comprises between about 10% by volume andabout 20% by volume of the nanopowder. The heat transfer mixturecomprises between about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of thesurfactant. The heat transfer mixture has a pH greater than 8.5.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of betweenabout 25% by volume and about 50% by volume of ethylene glycol, betweenabout 30% by volume and about 70% by volume of water, between about 1.0%by volume and about 20% by volume of a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃,between about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of a surfactant,between about 0% by volume and about 10% by volume of a base additive,between about 1% by volume and about 10% by volume of an acid additiveand between about 0.001% by volume and about 1.0% by volume of acorrosive inhibitor. The nanopowder has a particle size between about100 nanometers and about 600 nanometers. The heat transfer mixture has apH of about 10.0.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture is represented by the formula:1=Veg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vac/Vnf. Vnf is a volume of ananofluid. Veg is a volume of ethylene glycol. Vw is a volume of water.Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder. Vsf is a volume of a surfactant. Vac isa volume of an acid additive.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of ethyleneglycol, water, a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃, a surfactant and an acidadditive. The nanopowder has a particle size between about 100nanometers and about 600 nanometers. The heat transfer mixture comprisesbetween about 1% by volume and about 20% by volume of the nanopowder.The heat transfer mixture comprises between about 0.1% by volume andabout 3% by volume of the surfactant. The heat transfer mixture has a pHbetween about 8.5 and about 12.0.

In one embodiment, in accordance with the principles of the presentdisclosure, a heat transfer mixture comprises or consists of betweenabout 25% by volume and about 50% by volume of ethylene glycol, betweenabout 30% by volume and about 70% by volume of water, between about 1.0%by volume and about 20% by volume of a nanopowder comprising Al₂O₃,between about 0.1% by volume and about 3% by volume of a surfactant andbetween about 0% by volume and up to about 10% by volume of an acidadditive. The nanopowder has a particle size between about 100nanometers and about 600 nanometers. The heat transfer mixture has a pHof about 10.0.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present disclosure will become more readily apparent from thespecific description accompanied by the following drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a graph showing performance characteristics of a heat transfermixture in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure; and

FIG. 2 is a graph showing performance characteristics of a heat transfermixture in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure.

Like reference numerals indicate similar parts throughout the figures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure may be understood more readily by reference tothe following detailed description of the disclosure taken in connectionwith the accompanying drawing figures, which form a part of thisdisclosure. It is to be understood that this disclosure is not limitedto the specific devices, methods, conditions or parameters describedand/or shown herein, and that the terminology used herein is for thepurpose of describing particular embodiments by way of example only andis not intended to be limiting of the claimed disclosure. Also, as usedin the specification and including the appended claims, the singularforms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural, and reference to aparticular numerical value includes at least that particular value,unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Ranges may be expressedherein as from “about” or “approximately” one particular value and/or to“about” or “approximately” another particular value. When such a rangeis expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular valueand/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values areexpressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it willbe understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. Theranges disclosed herein can include any of the upper limits of theranges in combination with any of the lower limits of the ranges. It isalso understood that all spatial references, such as, for example,horizontal, vertical, top, upper, lower, bottom, left and right, are forillustrative purposes only and can be varied within the scope of thedisclosure. For example, the references “upper” and “lower” are relativeand used only in the context to the other, and are not necessarily“superior” and “inferior”.

The following discussion includes a description of a heat transfermixture, in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure.Alternate embodiments are also disclosed. Reference will now be made indetail to the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

The present disclosure relates to formulations, processes andapplications for a nanofluid having nanoparticles of Aluminum Oxide withselected specifications in terms of size properties and morphology aswell as the ability to be stably suspended inside a base fluid with aspecific chemical composition. In some embodiments, a solid phase isdispersed in a liquid. The solid phase is made of clusters that have adimension such to avoid phonon scattering that might occur at the liquidsolid interphase. The heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure isformulated and processed, taking the above into account, to maximize theheat transfer capability of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the heattransfer mixture of the present disclosure is a high concentrationnanofluid with about 1% to about 20% in volume of nanoparticles whichcan be installed into a thermal system with a retrofit solution whichfeeds the existing heat transfer fluid into the thermal system.

A nanofluid is a heterogeneous suspension or mixture comprising twophases, a solid phase and a liquid phase, in which the dimensions of thesolid phase components in suspension are nanometric. The two phases ofthe suspension are also separable through mechanical methods, since thesubstances used to form the heterogeneous mixture or suspension do notmodify their structure, as is the case, for example, in the solutions.

The presence of Aluminum Oxide nanoparticles gives the nanofluidrelevant thermal and fluid dynamic properties compared to the basefluid. For example, the thermal conductivity, heat capacity, viscosity,density and electrical conductivity.

In many nanofluids known as the state of the art, the nanoparticles ofthe solid phase have a tendency to deposit due to gravity. This is aphenomenon that has several consequences because it causes a reductionof the volumetric concentration of the nanoparticles inside thenanofluid therefore the thermal and fluid properties are different thanexpected. Furthermore, in an unstable nanofluid the particles tend toaccumulate inside the pipes where the nanofluid is installed leading toclogging thus creating an obvious problem for certain applications.

Another phenomenon observed in the nanofluids known as the state of theart is the tendency of the nanopowders to generate clusters oragglomerations (solids composed by the combination of various nanometricparticles) which have substantially larger dimensions of the individualparticles. This phenomenon is negative, as it modifies the properties ofthe nanofluid, increases the tendency to settle and significantlyincreases the abrasion of the fluid which can lead to failures incertain components of the system.

The heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure is configured toprovide a nanofluid having a greater heat exchange capacity because ithas a high thermal conductivity, a higher density and thermal capacityand provides a stable nanofluid, in which the solid phase does not tendto separate from the liquid phase or deposit on the pipe surface insidethe system.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosurecomprises water, propylene glycol and ethylene glycol as base fluidtogether with surfactant additives to allow the nanoparticles stablesuspension.

The physical variables of the suspension as base knowledge for thestabilization process optimization are the pH of the suspension, thezeta potential of the suspension, the hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance(HLB), and the specific surface area (SSA) of the nanoparticles.

A particle dispersed in a liquid generally presents at the surface theelectrostatic charges that generate an electric field responsible forthe redistribution of the ions present around the surface of thenanoparticles. This leads to an increase in the concentration of ionswith electrical charge opposite to those on the particle surface.

This electrical charge distribution causes a variable electricalpotential with the distance from the particle, called zeta potential.When two particles are so close together that their double layersoverlap, they repel each other with an electrostatic force whoseintensity depends on the potential zeta, and at the same time attracteach other for the well-known attraction of Van der Walls. If the zetapotential is too low, the repulsive force is not strong enough toovercome the Van der Walls attraction between the particles, and theparticles will start to agglomerate making the suspension unstable. Byadding a surfactant in a water-based suspension, a high zeta potentialinstead prevents agglomeration and maintains uniform dispersion. Thesurfactant molecules intervene on the separation surfaces between theliquid phase and the solid phase with the polar part facing the liquidphase and the polar part towards the solid phase.

In some embodiments, the Heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis a biphasic mixture consisting of a liquid fraction and a solidfraction including: Aluminum Oxide nanoparticles, pure water, propyleneglycol, ethylene glycol, a polar-nonionic surfactant, an anionicsurfactant, a nonpolar surfactant and sodium hydroxide.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis a stable suspension with relevant concentration of nanoparticles upto about 20% in volume. It can be diluted up to 1:20 in order to obtainthe system fluid desired. Despite the dilution, the nanofluid is stableand contains enough additive to prevent corrosion and to keep thesuspension stable in the final system destination. In some embodiments,the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure shows stability forat least 1680 hours. In particular, by adding a high concentrationnanofluid in a base heat transfer fluid made of water, water andpropylene glycol or ethylene glycol, the thermal conductivity incrementis achieved. For example, the thermal conductivity increment of the basefluid made of water and propylene glycol at 60:40 volume concentrationis obtained by adding the high concentration of stable nanofluid. Infact, with 2% nanofluid concentration in the system fluid and propyleneglycol at 40% in volume, the thermal conductivity increment achieved isbetween 15% and 17%. FIG. 1 shows the thermal conductivity incrementobtained by adding the nanofluid to the base fluid made of water andpropylene glycol at 60:40 volume concentration.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis an engineered suspension of nanometer-sized solid particles in a basefluid. Suspending small solid particles in the energy transmissionfluids can improve their thermal conductivity and provides an effectiveand innovative way to significantly enhance their heat transfercharacteristics by increasing convective heat transfer in closed loophydronic systems, reducing energy demand. The heat transfer mixture ofthe present disclosure can be applied to various industrial andcommercial HVAC systems and related components including chillers, heatexchangers, boilers and energy recovery units. Heat exchangers are sizedfor certain approach temperatures. The lower the approach operationaltemperature, the larger the heat exchanger. In fact, the specificsurface of heat exchangers depends on the temperature difference betweenthe two thermal fluids. The surface area S of heat exchangers that isneeded for exchanging an amount Qtot of heat in time Δt depends also onthe fluids involved and on the material properties of the exchangersurface that is subject to degradation over time. Because the heattransfer mixture of the present disclosure leads the system fluid tohigher thermal conductivity and mass flow rate, it increases heattransfer between the air and the thermal fluid, thereby increasing heatexchanger performance.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosurecomprises Aluminum Oxide (Al₂O₃) [10-20% in volume] and base fluid madeof Water [15%-90%] plus propylene glycol or ethylene glycol [75%-0%].The surfactant amount is in the range of 2.0%-4.0% in weight of thenanoparticle quantity. In volume it is between about 0.1% to about 3% ofthe nanofluid volume in the mixture. The size distribution curve of theclusters of nanoparticles is required to be at least 50% of thenanoparticle volume in the range of diameter 100 nm<D<600 nm. FIG. 2shows the size distribution curve of the clusters of nanoparticles usedin the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the following condition in the formulation is usedto keep the nanofluid stable by additional surfactant as a function ofthe amount of glycol, the nanoparticles concentration:1=a_(pg)+b_(w)+c_(np)+d_(sf)+e_(bs)+f_(ac)+g_(ci). The parameter rangesare: 0.293<a_(pg)<0.488; 0.354<b_(w)<0.683; 0.01<c_(np)<0.2;0.0012<d_(sf)<0.0234; 0.013<e_(bs)<0.068; 0.013<f_(ac)<0.068; and0.0002<g_(ci)<0.001. The ratios of the variables are as follows:a_(pg)=Vpg/Vnf; b_(w)=Vw/Vnf; c_(np)=Vpw/Vnf; d_(sf)=Vsf/Vnf;e_(bs)=Vbs/Vnf; f_(ac)=Vac/Vnf; and g_(ci)=Vci/Vnf. The variables aredefined as follows: Vnf=Volume of nanofluid; Vpg=Volume of propyleneglycol; Vw=Volume of water; Vpw=Volume of nanopowder; Vsf=Volume ofsurfactant; Vbs=Volume of base; and Vac=Volume of acid. In someembodiments, the heat transfer mixture comprises ethylene glycol inplace of, or in addition to, propylene glycol. In some embodiments, theheat transfer mixture does not include a base and consists of propyleneglycol or ethylene glycol, water, the nanopowder, the surfactant, theacid, and the corrosion inhibitor. In some embodiments, the heattransfer mixture does not include the base or the acid and consists ofpropylene glycol or ethylene glycol, water, the nanopowder, thesurfactant and the corrosion inhibitor. In some embodiments, the heattransfer mixture does not include the acid and consists of propyleneglycol or ethylene glycol, water, the nanopowder, the surfactant, thebase, and the corrosion inhibitor.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis made by adding a surfactant before a milling step and because it is acold milling process, the surfactant is not affected by local hightemperature due to the friction. A fluidizer is used instead ofsonication. It is a mechanical process where the nanofluid is subject toan extremely high shear rate. During this process, the fluid achieves aspeed up to 400 m/s and goes through a microchannel with diamond coatingwhere the clusters are reduced to the desired size.

In some embodiments, the surfactant is a sodium salt solution ofpolyamino polyether methylene phosphonic acid [CAS:130668-24-5] and theconcentration of the surfactant by volume in the nanofluid is about 1%to about 3% by volume. In some embodiments, the surfactant is an anionicsurfactant, such as, for example, the anionic surfactant shown below.

In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises non-ionic, anionic,cationic and amphoteric surfactants and blends thereof. Suitablenonionic surfactants include, but are not necessarily limited to, alkylpolyglycosides, sorbitan esters, methyl glucoside esters, amineethoxylates, diamine ethoxylates, polyglycerol esters, alkylethoxylates, alcohols that have been polypropoxylated and/orpolyethoxylated or both. Suitable anionic surfactants selected from thegroup consisting of alkali metal alkyl sulfates, alkyl ether sulfonates,alkyl sulfonates, alkyl aryl sulfonates, linear and branched alkyl ethersulfates and sulfonates, alcohol polypropoxylated sulfates, alcoholpolyethoxylated sulfates, alcohol polypropoxylated polyethoxylatedsulfates, alkyl disulfonates, alkylaryl disulfonates, alkyl disulfates,alkyl sulfosuccinates, alkyl ether sulfates, linear and branched ethersulfates, alkali metal carboxylates, fatty acid carboxylates, andphosphate esters. Suitable cationic surfactants include, but are notnecessarily limited to, arginine methyl esters, alkanolamines andalkylene diamides. Suitable surfactants may also include surfactantscontaining a non-ionic spacer-arm central extension and an ionic ornonionic polar group. Other suitable surfactants are dimeric or geminisurfactants and cleavable surfactants.

In some embodiments, the amount of surfactant used is optimized asfunction of the nanoparticles' weight and size distribution. In someembodiments, the surfactant comprises high temperature resistantcompounds (Tmax=220° C.) which provides a fundamental advantage in theprocess because it is possible to mix it before the grinding processwithout any degradation due to high temperature of the grinding mediafriction. Having the surfactant included during the mill processoptimizes the process by enhancing the dispersant effect on nanopowder.

In some embodiments, the nanoparticles are clusters in a range between100-600 nm. The solid phase is made of clusters that have a dimensionsuch to avoid phonon scattering that might occur at the liquid solidinterphase. This condition optimizes the heat transfer effects and thethermal waves propagation. In some embodiments, to achieve this sizedistribution of the clusters, a grinding media of 0.3 mm and a grinderwith 4500 rpm is used for 3 hours.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis made using a fluidizer instead of sonication. It is a mechanicalprocess where the nanofluid is subject to an extremely high shear rate.The fluid during the pressing at 2000 bar achieves a speed up to 400 m/sand goes through a microchannel with diamond coating where the clustersare reduced to the desired size. A cold grinder is used to avoidtemperature increase during the process due to the friction with thegrinding media. Sodium Hydroxide is used to adjust the pH at 10 as theoptimized solution against sedimentation. pH=10 is a chemical conditionof the nanofluid that leads the zeta potential above 25 mV againstsedimentation of the nanoparticles.

Using the fluidizer makes it possible to achieve pressure of 2000 barand relevant shear rate. The fluidizer also increases the volume flowrate of the process with much higher feasibility compared to thesonication process. The cold grinding avoids degradation of thesurfactant that is inside the chamber during the grinding. The hightemperature resistant surfactant is more suitable to avoid degradationof the additive during the grinding process where high temperaturefriction occurs.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureincludes nanoparticles that form clusters or agglomerates, i.e.particles made up from the union of many nanometric particles which havedimensions substantially greater than the single particles. It waspreviously believed that this phenomenon had a negative effect as it wasbelieved that clusters only increased the likelihood of sedimentation.However, it has been found that when the clusters or agglomerates ofnanoparticles within certain dimensions are combined with a surfactantadditive, they can help to increase the effective thermal properties ofthe heat transfer mixture.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureprovides a stable nanofluid, wherein the solid phase does not tend to beseparated from the liquid phase, depositing on the bottom of thecontainers in which the nanofluid is stored or in the system's pipeswhere it is utilized.

In some embodiments, the solid phase of the heat transfer mixture of thepresent disclosure comprises aluminum oxide nanopowder. In someembodiments, the liquid phase of the heat transfer mixture of thepresent disclosure comprises water and surfactants. In particular, asexplained in detail in the following, the characteristics whichdetermine the heat exchange capacity and the stability of the nanofluidare the morphological, dimensional and structural characteristics of thesolid component and the presence and concentration of chemical additivesin the liquid phase. The factors to be worked on to stabilize thesuspension with respect to the nanoparticles' aggregation are thesuspension pH, the interface tension and the surface electrostaticcharge of the nanoparticles.

Generally, a particle dispersed in a liquid, at the surface haselectrostatic charges which determine an electric field responsible forthe redistribution of the ions provided in the space surrounding thesame particle. This leads to an increase in ion concentration of chargeopposite to the one of the particles at the surface. In particular, theliquid layer surrounding the particle is made up of two zones: an innerone (Stern layer) with ions strongly linked to the particle, and anouter one (Gouy-Chapman layer or diffused layer), where theelectrostatic interactions are weaker. The two zones constitute a doubleelectric layer around each particle. Inside the diffused layer two zonescan be defined, separated by a plane which is the shear plane. When theparticle moves, the ions of the diffused layer closer to the particlethan to the shear plane move with it while those beyond the shear planeare continually substituted by other ions present in the liquid.

This charge distribution determines an electric potential variableaccording to the distance of the particle, which is the zeta potential.When two particles are so close that their double layers overlap, theserepel each other with an electrostatic force whose intensity depends onthe zeta potential, and at the same time they attract each other by theknown Van der Walls attraction. If the zeta potential is too low, therepelling force is not strong enough to exceed the Van der Walls forcebetween the particles, and these begin to agglomerate thus making thesuspension instable. A high zeta potential avoids agglomeration andmaintains uniformity in the dispersion.

Another condition on which the suspension stability depends is thewettability status of the solid particles, i.e. the capacity of theliquid to be distributed on the surface of a solid, which depends on thesurface tensions of the liquid phase and solid phase.

In fact, when a liquid and a solid come in contact, an interface tensionresults owing to the interactions between the phases. Assuming that aliquid drop is in contact with a solid surface, the profile of a liquidportion arranged on a solid surface forms a Θ angle, which is thewettability angle, which is greater or lesser than 90° depending onwhether the cohesion forces prevail between the liquid molecules orwhether the adherence forces prevail between the molecules of the twodifferent solid and liquid phases. The Θ angle can be expressed by thefollowing relation:

cos(Θ)=(YS−ySL)/yL   (1)

where yS, ySL and yL are respectively the surface tensions between thesolid and the air, the solid and the liquid (interface tension) and theliquid and the air. From (1) it is noted how the wettability of theliquid can be increased by decreasing the surface tension of the liquid.

To obtain such a result inside the suspension, thus decreasing theaggregation tendency of the particles, we introduce substances thatinfluence the liquid-solid surface tension (surfactants). Surfactantsare a class of organic compounds comprising a hydrophilic portion(polar, presenting affinity with water and so soluble) and a hydrophobicportion (nonpolar, presenting affinity with oil substances and soinsoluble in water). By adding a surfactant in the water-basedsuspension, the surfactant molecules arrange themselves on theseparation surfaces between the liquid phase and the solid phase withthe polar portion towards the liquid phase and the non-polar portiontowards the solid phase (or aeriform in case of liquid-air separationsurface).

In order to control the suspension stability, it is necessary tointervene on the electrostatic charge around the particles and on theinterface tension between solid phase and liquid phase.

In some embodiments, the solid phase of the heterogeneous mixturecomprises aluminum oxide nanoparticles with specific morphology anddimensions. In some embodiments, the solid phase dispersed in the liquidis made up of particles of nanometric dimensions (nanopowders ornanoparticles) with an average dimension between about 100 nanometersand about 600 nanometers. In some embodiments, the solid phase dispersedin the liquid is made up of particles of nanometric dimensions(nanopowders or nanoparticles) with an average dimension between about200 nanometers and about 500 nanometers. In some embodiments, the solidphase dispersed in the liquid is made up of particles of nanometricdimensions (nanopowders or nanoparticles) with an average dimensionbetween about 300 nanometers and about 400 nanometers. In someembodiments, the solid phase dispersed in the liquid is made up ofparticles of nanometric dimensions (nanopowders or nanoparticles) withan average dimension between about 400 nanometers and about 600nanometers. In some embodiments, the solid phase dispersed in the liquidis made up of particles of nanometric dimensions (nanopowders ornanoparticles) with an average dimension between about 100 nanometersand about 600 nanometers. In some embodiments, the solid phase dispersedin the liquid is made up of particles of nanometric dimensions(nanopowders or nanoparticles) with an average dimension between about300 nanometers and about 600 nanometers. In some embodiments, the solidphase dispersed in the liquid is made up of particles of nanometricdimensions (nanopowders or nanoparticles) with an average dimensionbetween 100 nanometers and 600 nanometers. In some embodiments, thesolid phase dispersed in the liquid is made up of particles ofnanometric dimensions (nanopowders or nanoparticles) with an averagedimension between 300 nanometers and 600 nanometers.

In some embodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders ornanoparticles is between about 0.1% by volume of the nanofluid and about50% by volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentrationof the nanopowders or nanoparticles is between about 1.0% by volume ofthe nanofluid and about 40% by volume of the nanofluid. In someembodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles isbetween about 2% by volume of the nanofluid and about 30% by volume ofthe nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of the nanopowdersor nanoparticles is between about 3% by volume of the nanofluid andabout 30% by volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, theconcentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles is between about 4% byvolume of the nanofluid and about 30% by volume of the nanofluid. Insome embodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticlesis between about 5% by volume of the nanofluid and about 30% by volumeof the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of thenanopowders or nanoparticles is between about 6% by volume of thenanofluid and about 25% by volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments,the concentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles is between about10% by volume of the nanofluid and about 20% by volume of the nanofluid.In some embodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders ornanoparticles is between 0.1% by volume of the nanofluid and 50% byvolume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of thenanopowders or nanoparticles is between 1.0% by volume of the nanofluidand 40% by volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, theconcentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles is between 2% byvolume of the nanofluid and 30% by volume of the nanofluid. In someembodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles isbetween 3% by volume of the nanofluid and 30% by volume of thenanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders ornanoparticles is between 4% by volume of the nanofluid and 30% by volumeof the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of thenanopowders or nanoparticles is between 5% by volume of the nanofluidand 30% by volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, theconcentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles is between 6% byvolume of the nanofluid and 25% by volume of the nanofluid. In someembodiments, the concentration of the nanopowders or nanoparticles isbetween 10% by volume of the nanofluid and 20% by volume of thenanofluid.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosureis a biphasic mixture made up of a liquid fraction and a solid fraction;the liquid fraction comprises water, propylene glycol or ethyleneglycol, surfactant, pH corrector additives in such a concentration tomaximize the zeta potential and to minimize the interface tensionbetween solid phase and liquid phase, and anticorrosive agents.

In some embodiments, the mass ratio between the surfactant quantitypresent in the liquid phase and the quantity of nanopowders is betweenabout 2% and about 4%. In some embodiments, the mass ratio between thesurfactant quantity present in the liquid phase and the quantity ofnanopowders is between about 2.5% and about 3.5%. In some embodiments,the mass ratio between the surfactant quantity present in the liquidphase and the quantity of nanopowders is about 3%. In some embodiments,the mass ratio between the surfactant quantity present in the liquidphase and the quantity of nanopowders is between 3.5%.

In some embodiments, the concentration of the surfactant is betweenabout 0.1% by total volume of the nanofluid and about 3% by total volumeof the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the concentration of thesurfactant is between about 0.5% by total volume of the nanofluid andabout 2.5% by total volume of the nanofluid. In some embodiments, theconcentration of the surfactant is between about 1% by total volume ofthe nanofluid and about 2% by total volume of the nanofluid.

In some embodiments, the nanoparticles in the nanofluid have regularmorphology, in particular spherical morphology allowing for optimizingthe heat exchange capacity and reducing the tendency for thenanoparticles to be trapped on the surfaces of the pipes. In someembodiments, the nanoparticles in the nanofluid have an irregularmorphology. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles in the nanofluid arein the form of clusters.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosurehas a density (at 20° C.) between 1 g/cm³ and 1.65 g/cm³. In someembodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure has adynamic viscosity (at 20° C.) between 1 cps and 30 cps. In someembodiments, the heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure at 2%nanoparticle concentration has thermal conductivity increment (at 20°C.) between 15% and 17% and the increment in terms of thermalconductivity is linear with the concentration in the heat transfermixture.

In some embodiments, the nanofluid preparation comprises mixing water,the nanoparticles, the surfactant and propylene glycol or ethyleneglycol; milling by means of rapid mill; and fluidization. In the mixingstep, the tap water, the surfactant, propylene glycol or ethylene glycoland the powder comprising the nanoparticles are mixed in quantities suchthat the desired solid volume percentage is reached. The mixing isaccomplished using a cold grinder that is kept at a low temperature toavoid any temperature increase due to the friction with the grindingmedia. The solution is milled based on continuous mill, which consistsof a jug inside with zirconia grains. By using this method, the clustersof nanoparticles are not crushed. Grain diameter=0.3 mm −1 mm dependingon the mixture concentration. After milling, the outlet nanofluid iscollected in a continuous fluidizer. The fluidizer utilizes a mechanicalprocess which subjects the nanofluid to an extremely high shear rate.During the process, the fluid achieves a speed up to 400 m/s through amicrochannel with a diamond coating where the clusters are reduced to aselected size. In some embodiments, the nanofluid preparation does notinvolve sonication. In some embodiments, sodium hydroxide is used toadjust the pH of the nanofluid to 10.0.

In some embodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixtureof the present disclosure does not include any additives, such as, forexample, a base additive, an acid additive, or a corrosive inhibitor. Insome embodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixture ofthe present disclosure includes a base as the only additive. In someembodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixture of thepresent disclosure includes an acid as the only additive. In someembodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixture of thepresent disclosure includes a corrosive inhibitor as the only additive.In some embodiments, the base additive comprises sodium hydroxide[NaOH], potassium hydroxide[ KOH], calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂] and isused to increase the pH of the product after the preparation process dueto the fact that pH is 10 is the required basic level to warranty thestability of the nanoparticles in the suspension. In fact, the “zetapotential” related to the electrochemical field around the nanoparticlein the fluid is more pronounced when pH is higher than 8.5. In someembodiments, the acid additive comprises hydrochloric acid, acetic acid,and/or phosphoric acid and is used in the formulation of the nanofluidwith ethylene glycol since in that case the pH is higher than 10 and theacid is necessary to reduce the pH to 10 for a stable nanofluidsuspension. In some embodiments, the corrosive inhibitor comprisesmolybdate anion, calcium nitrite, zinc phosphate, chromates and/orlanthanide compounds and is used to avoid corrosion phenomena betweenthe nanoparticles and the metal surface of the system where it isinstalled. The inhibitors are useful to avoid pitting phenomenaresulting from the deposit and contact between nanoparticles and metalsurfaces.

In some embodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixtureof the present disclosure includes one or more additives to provideother desired chemical and physical properties and characteristics. Insome embodiments, the additives include a base additive, an acidadditive and/or a corrosive inhibitor in addition to the componentsdiscussed above. That is, the heat transfer mixture of the presentdisclosure can include a base additive, an acid additive and/or acorrosive inhibitor in addition to water, the nanoparticles, thesurfactant and propylene glycol and/or ethylene glycol. In someembodiments, the base additive, the acid additive and/or the corrosiveinhibitor are combined with the nanoparticles, the surfactant andpropylene glycol and/or ethylene glycol during the mixing step.

In some embodiments, the base additive is configured to increase the pHof the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixturecomprises propylene glycol and the surfactant produce a fluid having apH below 7. As such, a base additive, such as, for example, sodiumhydroxide is used to increase the pH up to 10. In some embodiments, thebase additive includes KOH, NaOH, NaHCO₃, Ca(OH)₂, K₂CO₃, and/or Na₂CO₃.In some embodiments, the acid additive is configured to decrease the pHof the nanofluid. In some embodiments, the heat transfer mixturecomprises ethylene glycol to produce a fluid with a pH that is higherthan 10. The acid is therefore used to reduce the pH to 10 to reducecorrosion phenomena. In some embodiments, the acid additive includeshydrochloric acid, acetic acid and/or phosphoric acid. In someembodiments, the corrosive inhibitor is configured to prevent corrosionof the nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the corrosive inhibitorincludes molybdate anion, calcium nitrite, zinc phosphate, chromatesand/or lanthanide compounds and is used to avoid corrosion phenomenabetween the nanoparticles and the metal surface of the system where itis installed. The inhibitors are useful to avoid pitting phenomenaresulting from the deposit and contact between nanoparticles and metalsurfaces.

In some embodiments, the base additive includes triazoles, such as tolyltriazole and benzotriazole, aspartic acid, sebacic acid, borax,molybdates, such as molybdic oxide and sodium molybdate dihydrate,nitrites, amine-based compounds such as ethylene diamine, propylenediamine, morpholine, short aliphatic dicarboxylic acids such as maleicacid, succinic acid, and adipic acid, thiazoles such asmercaptobenzothiazole, thiadiazoles such as2-mercapto-5-hydrocarbylthio-1,3,4-thiadiazoles,2-mercapto-5-hydrocarbyldithio-1,3,4-thiadiazoles,2,5-bis(hydrocarbylthio)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles, and2,5-(bis)hydrocarbyldithio)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles, sulfonates, imidazolinesor a combination of two or more thereof.

In some embodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfer mixtureof the present disclosure does not include propylene glycol or ethyleneglycol. In such embodiments, the liquid component of the heat transfermixture of the present disclosure consists of water. In this embodiment,the heat transfer mixture represented by theformula:1=Vw/Vnf+Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf+Vac/Vnf+Vci/Vnf, wherein Vnf isa volume of a nanofluid, wherein Vw is a volume of water, wherein Vpw isa volume of a nanopowder, wherein Vsf is a volume of a surfactant,wherein Vbs is a volume of a base additive, wherein Vac is a volume ofan acid additive, and wherein Vci is a volume of a corrosive inhibitor.In one embodiment, the surfactant is HEDP/PBTC/PCA-etidronicacid/phosphonobutane-tricarboxylic acid/phosphino-carboxylic acid.

The heat transfer mixture of the present disclosure has a wide scope ofuses including HVAC, power generation, chemical processing and datacenter cooling. With respect to HVAC the heat transfer mixture can beapplied to various industrial and commercial HVAC systems and relatedcomponents including chillers, heat exchangers, boilers and energyrecovery units. In any hydronic heating and/or cooling system, the heattransfer mixture lowers heat exchanger approach temperatures, increasingheat transfer efficiency and reducing energy loss.

It will be understood that various modifications may be made to theembodiments disclosed herein. Therefore, the above description shouldnot be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplification of thevarious embodiments. Those skilled in the art will envision othermodifications within the scope and spirit of the claims appended hereto.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A nanofluid comprising: Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf,wherein Vnf is a volume of the nanofluid, wherein Vpw is a volume of ananopowder, wherein 10%<Vpw/Vnf<20%, wherein Vsf is a volume of asurfactant, wherein Vsf/Vnf is 1% to 3%, wherein Vbs is a volume of abase additive, wherein 0.1%<Vbs/Vnf<1.3%, and wherein the nanopowdercomprises aluminum oxide.
 22. The nanofluid recited in claim 21, whereinthe surfactant is a sodium salt solution ofpolyamino-polyether-methylene-phosphonic acid.
 23. The nanofluid recitedin claim 21, wherein the nanopowder consists of aluminum oxide.
 24. Thenanofluid recited in claim 21, wherein the nanopowder has a particlesize between 200 nanometers and 500 nanometers
 25. The nanofluid recitedin claim 21, wherein Vpw/Vnf is 15%.
 26. The nanofluid recited in claim21, wherein Vbs/Vnf is 0.7%.
 27. The nanofluid recited in claim 21,wherein Vsf/Vnf is 1%.
 28. The nanofluid recited in claim 21, whereinVsf/Vnf is 3%.
 29. The nanofluid recited in claim 21, wherein thenanofluid has a pH of about 8.5-12.0.
 30. The nanofluid recited in claim21, wherein the nanofluid has a pH of 10.0.
 31. The nanofluid recited inclaim 21, further comprising Vg/Vnf+Vw/Vnf, wherein Vg is a volume ofglycol, and wherein Vw is a volume of water.
 32. The nanofluid recitedin claim 31, wherein Vg/Vnf is 42%, and wherein Vw/Vnf is 42%
 33. Thenanofluid recited in claim 21, further comprising Vac/Vnf+Vci/Vnf,wherein Vac is a volume of an acid additive, and wherein Vci is a volumeof a corrosive inhibitor.
 34. A nanofluid comprising:Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf, wherein Vnf is a volume of the nanofluid,wherein Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder, wherein 10%<Vpw/Vnf<20%,wherein Vsf is a volume of a surfactant, wherein Vsf/Vnf is 1% to 3%,wherein Vbs is a volume of a base additive, wherein 0.1%<Vbs/Vnf<1.3%,wherein the nanopowder consists of aluminum oxide, and wherein thesurfactant is a sodium salt solution ofpolyamino-polyether-methylene-phosphonic acid.
 35. The nanofluid recitedin claim 34, wherein the nanopowder has a particle size between 200nanometers and 500 nanometers.
 36. The nanofluid recited in claim 34,wherein Vpw/Vnf is 15%.
 37. The nanofluid recited in claim 34, whereinVbs/Vnf is 0.7%.
 38. The nanofluid recited in claim 34, wherein thenanofluid has a pH of about 8.5-12.0.
 39. The nanofluid recited in claim34, wherein the nanofluid has a pH of 10.0.
 40. A nanofluid comprising:Vpw/Vnf+Vsf/Vnf+Vbs/Vnf, wherein Vnf is a volume of the nanofluid,wherein Vpw is a volume of a nanopowder, wherein 10%<Vpw/Vnf<20%,wherein Vsf is a volume of a surfactant, wherein Vsf/Vnf is 1% to 3%,wherein Vbs is a volume of a base additive, wherein 0.1%<Vbs/Vnf<1.3%,wherein the nanopowder consists of aluminum oxide, wherein thenanopowder has a particle size between 200 nanometers and 500nanometers, wherein the surfactant is a sodium salt solution ofpolyamino-polyether-methylene-phosphonic acid, and wherein the nanofluidhas a pH of 10.0.